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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_listing_category' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_listing_category', 'Listing Post Category', 'Display post category in listing pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_comment' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_comment', 'Detail Post Comment', 'Display post comment in detail pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
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Ferguson appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States with the question whether §38-415 limited his right to counsel at each stage in his own trial. He did not challenge the constitutional validity of §38-416 in his appeal. However, the Supreme Court Justices decided to review the validity of that section the Georgia Code as well (“FERGUSON V. GEORGIA, 365 U. S. 570 (1961)”, Footnote 1), despite the absence of the appellant himself as a witness against the clause. The nature of the two sections disputed in the Ferguson vs. Georgia case connects them in a way the design of the latter mitigates the rigor of the incompetency provided in §38-415.
The defendant’s most prominent argument in his case built upon the notion that denying the counsel of that charged with a crime violates the Article VI of the U.S. Bill of Rights, in addition to the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America. The reason for that lays in the argument that the denial limits the defendant’s ability to defend him or her during the most important time in the trial. The Article VI of the U.S. Bill of Rights gives American citizens the rights to self-representation, counsel throughout the trial process, and confrontation of witnesses, among others. The XIV Amendment to the Constitution reinforces and protects equality of all United States citizens before the law.
The history of the debate of disqualification of witnesses on the basis of interest in the outcome of the trial, that is, the declaration of incompetency of the parties in each case – prohibiting statements under oath from the defendant – goes back to the sixteenth century in England. Suring those times, the process of a trial could fit the description of “a long argument between the prisoner and the counsel for the Crown” (“FERGUSON V. GEORGIA, 365 U. S. 570 (1961)”, Page 365 U.S. 574.) Furthermore, the accused party did not yet have a right for counsel; any disqualification of witnesses on the basis of interest was completely improper because of the nature of the court. Nevertheless, a line of criticisms aroused against the old English system of trial. By the late XVII century, only witnesses could provide evidence in the courtroom; the accused assumed a distant position from his witnesses. The United States came into shape at the time when the common law norm legitimized disqualification by interest in a trial.
In 1784, the State of Georgia ratified an act which stated that the State would obey by the contemporary common law of England, provided that it does not obstruct the articles of the U.S. Constitution (“FERGUSON V. GEORGIA, 365 U. S. 570 (1961)”,Footnote 4.) The State also states directly the claim those witnesses who hold interest in a case to be incompetent to provide evidence. In its reply to Ferguson’s appeal, the Supreme Court of Georgia proclaimed that the defendant’s counsel may perform its services as long as their actions comply with the laws of the State and the U.S. Constitution. Although the case of the State of Georgia does have a good case, the defendant may argue that Georgia’s Code violate the Constitution; therefore, the counsel that obeys by the Code also violates the U.S. Constitution.
The general argument against disqualifications by interest is as follows: every possible piece of evidence should be taken into consideration when in a trial. A person in a rational state of mind is able to make proper judgments giving the status of each witness, including those who take their interest in the outcome of the court’s decision. In opposition for that statement comes the argument that in case if the law accuses an innocent person of a crime, and that person withdraws his or her right to testify for himself or herself, the risk of creating prejudicial opinion in the courtroom against the innocent, but accused, person arouses.
After long deliberation, the United States Supreme Court made a decision which held that, regardless of the nature of a counsel, appointed or hired, or the nature of the criminal offense, the section 38-415 of Georgia’s Code did not obey by the U.S. Constitution. The judgment has been reversed and remanded.
Works Cited
“FERGUSON V. GEORGIA, 365 U. S. 570 (1961).” Justia. Supreme Court Center. 22 Feb 2009 <http://supreme.justia.com/us/365/570/case.html>.
]]>Definition #1 : Muhammad
Definition / Importance of Muhammad: Muhammad was considered the greatest Islamic prophet. He was born in the sixth century, and grew old, married, and explored his faith. Muhammad was granted a revelation by the angel Gabriel, who told him that Allah was the only God, and that the world would be judged. Eventually Muhammad acquired followers who compiled the Qur’an out of Muhammad’s teachings, poetry and revelations regarding Islam. Muhammad’s teachings were not well received and he was forced to flee. He considered himself the last prophet of Allah and due to Muhammad’s determination to expand his circle of followers by destroying pagan icons and building mosques and shrines, as well as infiltrating the government with Islamic believers; he insured the continuity of his religion.
Definition #2 : The Five Pillars of Islam
Definition of The Five Pillars of Islam: Muhammad gave The Five Pillars as obligations that must be followed by every Islamic believer. The Five Pillars are as follows; Acknowledging Allah as the One True God, praying five times per day while facing Mecca, tithing, fasting, and the Hajj, a pilgrimage to the Mecca, required at least once for every Muslim able to do so. The Five Pillars are significant as they outline the details for what every Muslim must do to obtain salvation. Along with the spread of Islam through the Arabian Peninsula came the exposure to other cultures and the ability to expand on existing trade routes, which greatly helped enrich the land of Islam.
Definition #3 : Abbasid Caliphate
Definition / Importance of Abbasid Caliphate: The word “caliph” means deputy in Arabic. After Muhammad’s death, his deputies carried out his message. In the Shia culture, the deputy and his descendents were considered to be legitimate descendents of Muhammad, and the Shia’s discriminated against non-Muslims and non-Arabs. However, the Abbasid’s were descendents of the uncle of Muhammad, and they began an empire that grew very rapidly. They continued the idea of a religiously based government and based the construction of their government on the government of Persia. They did not discriminate, or favor the Arab-born citizens. Eventually the Abbasid dynasty declined, but the conflict that they had with the Shia’s remained, even in the present era.
Definition #4 : Sultanate of Delhi
Definition / Importance of the Sultanate of Delhi: After the death of the Turkish Mahmud of Ghazni, the leader of Afghanistan, north India was conquered by his successors. The sultanate of Delhi was the name that Mahmud’s successors granted northern India, which they transformed into an Islamic place. While the Sultans did not have much authority in India, their presence in Delhi gave Islam a foothold in a previously untouched country. Although Islam started out in several small places in India, it quickly grew to contain more than twenty five percent of the Indian population. From India, Islam continued to spread outwards towards Asia and other distant realms.
Definition #5 : The Bhakti Movement
Definition of the Bhakti Movement: While Islam was growing throughout India, Hinduism was fighting to keep its place as the most popular religion in the country. Islam was growing steadily, mainly for it’s flexibility regarding old traditions and the ability to worship older spirits. Also, converting to Islam sometimes improved the social caste of a convert, which drew more followers to the religion of Muhammad. The bhakti movement was an answer to this conflict between Hinduism and Buddhism. The bhakti movement attempted to teach believers that Hinduism and Islam worshiped the same god and that there were really no differences between the Hindu gods and the Islamic God.
Definition of the Kingdom of Axum: Axum was located in North Africa and served as a trading region. Rumor also states that the Ark of the Covenant and the Queen of Sheba rest in Axum. The region was involved in trade between India and the Mediterranean. Besides it’s trade functions, the Kingdom of Axum was very culturally accomplished. It had it’s own alphabet and great obelisks were created as an honor for their kings. Axum was a cultural melting pot, with Christianity as the main religion in a nation full of other religiously important cultures and churches. Axum also created and was the first to distribute their own coins. The biggest claim that the Kingdom of Axum can make is in regards to the Ark of the Covenant, and of course, if the Ark is actually located in the Kingdom of Axum, its significance in the world will be unmatchable.
Definition #7 : Seljuk Turks
Definition of Seljuk Turks: The Seljuk Turks ruled the Great Seljuk Empire, which was a Sunni Muslim dynasty. This Dynasty had power in the Middle East and Central Asia and their Empire was the target of the first Crusade. Their Empire was the first in the Middle East that was led by Persianized Turks. The Seljuk Turks were important because they revived Islamic civilization that had previously been dominated by Arabs, and they modeled their government after a nomadic tribal family state. The Seljuk Turks infused Muslims with the will to fight for their culture, and they also left behind many kinds of art and literature.
Definition #8 : Ottoman Empire
Definition of the Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a Turkish Empire that lasted roughly six hundred years, although it’s peak existed during the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The empire was multi-religious and multi-ethnic, and covered current day Southeast Europe, Middle East and North Africa. The Empire was very militaristically strong, especially in terms of its navy, and it relied heavily on colonization and the ability to defend itself from its neighbors. The Ottoman Empire was significant because it led spread of Turkish ideals and culture over a very long span of time. However, the Ottoman Empire was also fought against very strongly by the Catholics, including Philip of Spain.
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